Wednesday, December 3, 2014

OIL AND GAS LEASING AND EXPLORATION ACTIVITIES






oil and gas leasing and exploration activities

Glossary of Terms
This glossary contains commonly used terms in oil and gas leasing and exploration activities. Many of these terms are interesting and unique to the drilling industry.

A
Abandoned
A dry hole in which no producible oil or gas was present, or a well that has stopped producing. Abandoned wells must be plugged to prevent seepage of oil, gas, or water from one formation to another.
Active well
A well in mechanical condition for production or service use (i.e., in active production or service use).
Anticline
An upfold or arch of stratified rock in which the beds or layers bend downward in opposite directions form the crest or axis of the fold.
API
The American Petroleum Institute is the oil industry's trade organization. API's research and engineering work provides a basis for establishing operating and safety standard issues; specifications for the manufacturing of oil field equipment; and furnishes statistical and other information to related agencies.
Associated gas
Gas combined with oil. Known also as gas cap gas and solution gas, it provides the drive mechanism needed to force oil to the surface of a well. Associated gas is normally present in an oil reservoir in the early stages of production.



B
Barrel
The standard unit of measure of liquids in the petroleum industry; it contains 42 U.S. standard gallons.
Barrel of Oil Equivalent (BOE)
The amount of energy resource (in this document, natural gas) that is equal to one barrel of oil on an energy basis. The conversion is based on the assumption that one barrel of oil produces the same amount of energy when burned as 5,620 cubic feet of natural gas.
Basin
A depression of the earth's surface into which sediments are deposited, usually characterized by sediment accumulation over a long interval; a broad area of the earth beneath which layers of rock are inclined, usually from the sides toward the center.
Bed
A layer of rock, usually sediments, which is homogeneous (the same) in composition. One bed is separated from another by a bedding plane.
Bid
An offer for an OCS lease submitted by a potential lessee in the form of a cash bonus dollar amount or other commitments as specified in the final notice of sale.
Block
A numbered area on an OCS leasing map or official protraction diagram (OPD). Blocks are portions of OCS leasing maps and OPD's that are themselves portions of planning areas. Blocks vary in size, but typical ones are 5,000 to 5,760 acres (about 9 square miles or 2,304 hectares). Each block has a specific identifying number, area, and latitude and longitude coordinates that can be pinpointed on a leasing map of OPD.
Blowout
An uncontrolled flow of gas, oil, or other fluids from a well to the atmosphere. A well may blow out when formation pressure exceeds the pressure overburden of a column of drilling fluid.
Blowout preventer
A special assembly of heavy-duty valves, commonly called the BOP stack, installed on top of a well which can be closed to prevent high-pressure oil or gas from escaping (a blowout) from the well hole during drilling operations.
Bonus
The cash consideration paid to the United States by the successful bidder for a mineral lease. The payment is made in addition to the rent and royalty obligations specified in the lease.
Borehole
The hole in the earth made by the drill; the uncased drill hole from the surface to the bottom of the well.

C
Casing
Steel pipe used in oil wells to seal off fluids in the rocks from the bore hole and to prevent the walls of the hole from caving.
Casinghead
The top of the casing set in a well; the part of the casing that protrudes above the surface and to which the control valves and flow pipes are attached.
Casinghead gas
Gas produced from an oil well as distinguished from gas from a gas well. The casinghead gas is taken off at the top of the well or at the separator.
Choke
A type of orifice installed at the surface on the tubing string to adjust and control the amount of oil or gas flowing from a well. It is customary to refer to the production of a well as so many barrels or thousands of cubic feet through a 1/4-inch or 1/2-inch choke, or whatever the size of the opening. The flowing pressure exerted by the well's production give an indication of the strength of the well, and is helpful in determining whether a well is commercial.
Commercial well
A well of sufficient net production that it could be expected to pay out in a reasonable time and yield a profit from the operation. A shallow 50-barrel-a-day well in a readily accessible location onshore could be a commercial well. Such a well in virtually any offshore area where enormously expensive producing facilities and pipe lines would have to be constructed would not be considered commercial.
Completed well
A well that has been mechanically completed for production or service use. There may be more than one completed zone in the well. (See Active well.)
Concession
Usually used in foreign operations and refers to a large block of acreage granted to the operator by the host government for a certain time and under certain government conditions which allows the operator to conduct exploratory and/or development operations. The Concession Agreement assures the holder of certain rights under the law.
Condensate
A natural gas liquid with a low vapor pressure, compared with natural gasoline and liquified petroleum gas. It is produced from a deep well where the temperature and pressure are high. Gas condenses as it rises up the wellbore and reaches the surface as condensate. Similarly, condensate separates out naturally in pipelines or in a separation plant by the normal process of condensation.
Condensate
Liquid hydrocarbons produced with natural gas which are separated from it by cooling, expansion, and various other means (also called "distillate").
Continental margin
A zone separating the emergent continents from the deep sea bottoms.
Continental shelf
A broad, gently sloping, shallow feature extending from the shore to the continental slope.
Continental slope
A relatively steep, narrow feature paralleling the continental shelf; the region in which the steepest descent of the ocean bottom occurs.
COST
Continental Offshore Stratigraphic Test. These tests under the direction of the Minerals Management Service are wells deliberately drilled to provide geological information pertinent to competitive bidding for offshore tracts.


D
Demonstrated reserves (American Petroleum Institute)
A collective term for the sum of proved and indicated reserves. Proved reserves are estimated with reasonable certainty to be recovered under current economic conditions. Indicated reserves are economic reserves in known productive reservoirs in existing fields expected to respond to improved recovery techniques where (1) an improved technique has been installed but its effect cannot yet be fully evaluated, or (2) an improved technique has not been installed but knowledge of reservoir characteristics and the results of a known technique installed in a similar situation are available for use in the estimating procedure.
Development
Activities following exploration including the installation of facilities and the drilling and completion of wells for production purposes.
Diapir
A mass of rock, usually salt, which has come from a slightly deeper part of the earth's surface by piercing through overlying layers of sediment through a zone of weakness.
Directional drilling
The technique of drilling at an angle from the vertical by deflecting the drill bit. Directional wells are drilled to develop an offshore lease from one drilling platform; to reach a pay zone where drilling cannot be done, such as beneath a shipping lane.
Discovery
A find of significant quantities of gas or oil.
Dispersants
Those chemical agents that emulsify, disperse, or solubilize oil into the water column or promote the surface spreading of oil slicks to facilitate dispersal of the oil into the water column.
Dome
A roughly symmetrical upfold of the layers of rock in which the beds dip in all directions more or less equally from a common point; any deformation characterized by local uplift and approximately circular in outline; e.g. the salt domes of Louisiana and Texas.
Drill cuttings
Chips and small fragments of drilled rock that are brought to the surface by the flow of the drilling mud as it is circulated.
Drill pipe
Heavy, thich walled, hollow steel pipe used in rotary drilling to turn the drill bit and to provide a conduit for the drilling mud.
Drilling contractor
A person or company whose business is drilling wells. Wells are drilled on several contract specifications: per foot, day rate, or turnkey (that is, upon completion). Most major oil companies do not own drilling rigs. Exploration and development drilling is contracted. Personnel manning the rigs work for the contractor.
Drilling mud
A special mixture of clay, water, or refined oil, and chemical additives pumped downhole through the drill pipe and drill bit. The mud cools the rapidly rotating bit; lubricates the drill pipe as it turns in the well bore; carries rock cuttings to the surface; serves as a plaster to prevent the wall of the borehole from crumbling or collapsing; and provides the weight or hydrostatic head to prevent extraneous fluids from entering the well bore and to control downhole pressures that may be encountered.
Dry hole
A well drilled to a certain depth without finding commercially exploitable hydrocarbons.
Dry gas
Natural gas from the well that is free of liquid hydrocarbons; gas that has been treated to remove all liquids; pipeline gas.


E
Economically Recoverable Resource Estimate
An assessment of hydrocarbon potential that takes into account (1) physical and technological constraints on production and (2) the influence of exploration and development costs and market price on industry investment in OCS exploration and production.
Electric logging tool
A tool attached to a cable which is lowered into a well to survey the borehole before it is cased. An electrical impulse is emitted which is reflected from the rock strata. The degree of resistance to the current allows geologists to determine the nature of the rock penetrated by the drill and some indication of its permeability, porosity, and content (gas, oil, or water).
Environmental impact statement
A statement required by the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (NEPA) or similar state law in relation to any action significantly affecting the environment, including certain exploration and drilling activities.
Erosion/scour
The removal or dissolution of parts of the seabed by bottom currents, particularly those by storms. Transportation by currents of the removed material can result in significant movement of masses of sand, silt , and mud on the sea floor. This migration of sediment can "strand" drilling platform supports or wellhead plumbing by erosion of the surrounding support sediments.
Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)
An area contiguous to the territorial sea of the United States, the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, the Commonwealth of Northern Mariana Islands, and the U.S. overseas territories and possessions and extending 200 nautical miles from the coastline.
Exploration
The process of searching for minerals preliminary to development. Exploration activities include (1) geophysical surveys, (2) drilling to locate an oil or gas reservoir, and (3) the drilling of additional wells after a discovery to delineate a reservoir. It enables the lessee to determine whether to proceed with development and production.


F
Federal Jurisdiction
Defined under accepted principles of international law. The seaward limit is defined as the farthest of 200 nautical miles seaward of the baseline from which the breadth of the territorial sea is measured or, if the continental shelf can be shown to exceed 200 nautical miles, a distance not greater than a line 100 nautical miles from the 2,500-meter isobath or a line 350 nautical miles from the baseline.
Outer Continental Shelf limits greater than 200 nautical miles but less than either the 2,500 meter isobath plus 100 nautical miles or 350 nautical miles are defined by a line 60 nautical miles seaward of the foot of the continental slope or by a line seaward of the foot of the continental slope connecting points where the sediment thickness divided by the distance to the foot of the slope equals 0.01, whichever is farthest.
Field
A geographical area in which one or more oil or gas wells produce. A field may refer to surface area only or to underground productive formation. A single field may include several reservoirs separated either horizontally or vertically.


G
Gas lost
Avoidably lost natural gas which is flared or vented (i.e., natural gas not retained in the production system for sale or use).
I
Incident of Noncompliance (INC)
If an inspector finds a violation of BSEE regulations as they are outlined in the PINC checklists,, the Bureau Inspector issues an Incident of Noncompliance (INC) citation to the operator. Depending on the severity of the violation, the inspector can declare either a Warning or Shut-In INC.


  • If the violation is not severe or threatening, a warning INC is issued. The warning INC must be corrected within a reasonable amount of time specified on the INC.
  • The shut-in INC may be for a single component (a portion of the facility) or the entire facility. The violation must be corrected before the operator is allowed to continue the activity in question.

In addition to the enforcement actions specified above, the Bureau can assess a civil penalty of up to $35,000 per violation per day if: 1) the operator fails to correct the violation in the reasonable amount of time specified on the INC; or 2) the violation resulted in a threat of serious harm or damage to human life or the environment.
In-Situ Burning
In-Situ (Latin for In Place) Burning is one method of responding to an oil spill. It refers to a controlled burn of oil on the water surface where it spilled from a vessel or a facility such as a platform or pipeline. Authorities evaluate the impact on the environment and the safety of people and vessels before authorizing In-Situ burning.


L
Lease
A legal document executed between a landowner, as lessor, and a company or individual (as lessee) that conveys the right to exploit the premises for minerals or other products for a specified period of time over a given area.
Lease Sale (also called lease offering)
An BOEM proceeding by which leases of certain OCS tracts are offered for lease by competitive sealed bidding and during which bids are received, announced, and recorded.


M
Marginal probability of hydrocarbons (MPHC)
The probability that oil and gas occur in commercial quantities, using existing recovery technology under current economic conditions.
Minimum royalty
The lowest payment a lessee can pay on an OCS lease after production begins. It is equivalent to the yearly rental, typically $3 per acre or $8 per hectare (2.47 acres). Rentals are paid annually before a discovery; royalties are paid on production after a discovery. If the total royalty payments amount to less than the yearly rental, the minimum royalty payments make up the difference. (See Rent and Royalty.)


N
Net Profit Share lease
An OCS lease that provides for payment to the U.S. of a percentage share of the net profits for production of oil and gas from the tract. The percentage share may be fixed in the notice of the lease sale or may be a variable of the bid, depending on the bidding system used for the lease sale.
Nonassociated gas
Dry gas that is not associated with oil in a productive reservoir, as opposed to associated gas or solution gas.
NRC Reports
The primary function of the National Response Center is to serve as the sole national point of contact for reporting all oil, chemical, radiological, biological, and etiological discharges into the environment anywhere in the United States and its territories. NRC Reports are generally available online for spills which have occurred since 1990. NRC reports contain information available at the time of notification and do not reflect corrections in spill volume or other information collected after the time NRC was notified.


O
Oil lost
Oil that is spilled or burned (i.e., oil not retained in the production system for sale).
Operator
The individual, partnership, firm, or corporation having control or management of operations on a leased area or a portion thereof. The operator may be a lessee, designated agent of the lessee, holder of rights under an approved operation agreement, or an agent of an operating rights holder.
Outer Continental Shelf (OCS)
All submerged lands seaward and outside the area of lands beneath navigable waters. Lands beneath navigable waters are interpreted as extending from the coastline 3 nautical miles into the Atlantic Ocean, the Pacific Ocean, the Arctic Ocean, and the Gulf of Mexico excluding the coastal waters off Texas and western Florida. Lands beneath navigable waters are interpreted as extending from the coastline 3 marine leagues into the Gulf of Mexico off Texas and western Florida.
OCS Reports
The Bureau forms an Accident Investigation Panel for incidents that are major in nature and normally involve fatalities, serious injuries, substantial property, or a particularly large pollution event. The investigative report contains information damaged on the circumstances surrounding the accident, the root cause or causes of the accident, and recommendations to prevent a recurrence of such an incident. When complete, the report is assigned an OCS Report number. GOM OCS Investigation Reports prepared since 1992 are available online, and GOM reports prepared between 1984-1991 are available through the Gulf of Mexico OCS Region Public Information Unit (Call 1-800-200-GULF).


P
 Panel Investigation
 BSEE typically convenes a "panel" to investigate incidents that result in death, serious injury, or a significant pollution event.  At the conclusion of all panel investigations, BSEE will publish a report that seeks to explain why and how an incident occurred, detail the causes of the incident, address possible regulatory violations and offer recommendations to prevent a recurrence.

 Planning area
A subdivision of an offshore area used as the initial basis for considering blocks to be offered for lease.
Plugged and abandoned
Wells in which casings have been removed, and the well bore sealed with mechanical or cement plugs.
Potential Incident of Noncompliance (PINC)
Checklist items which BSEE inspects to pursue safe operations on the Outer Continental Shelf. This list of inspection items is derived from all regulations for safety and environmental standards. Categorized lists may be viewed here.
Producible lease
A lease where one well or several wells have discovered hydrocarbons in paying quantities, but for which there is no production during the reporting period.
Producible zone completion
The interval in a wellbore that has been mechanically prepared to produce oil, gas, or sulphur. There can be more than one zone completed for production in a wellbore.
Producing lease
A lease that is producing oil, gas, or sulphur in quantities sufficient to generate royalties.
Production
The phase of oil and gas operations involved with well fluids extraction, separation, treatment, measurement, etc.
Proven reserves (Society of Petroleum Engineers)
Reserves that can be estimated with reasonable certainty to be recovered under current economic conditions. Current economic conditions include processing costs prevailing at the time of the estimate. Proved reserves must either have facilities that are operational at the time of the estimate to process and transport those reserves to market, or a commitment of reasonable expectation to install such facilities in the future. Proved reserves can be subdivided into undeveloped and developed.


R
Rent
Periodic payments made by the holder of a lease, during the primary lease term for the right to use the land or resources for purposes established in the lease.
Risk Management
Operating on the American Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) is inherently risky. Both BSEE and industry face operational, financial, geologic and technical risks on a daily basis. BSEE’s mission is to mitigate these risks while at the same time taking account of America’s energy and environmental needs. The goal of risk management is to efficiently reduce these risks by understanding them from a holistic perspective.
Risk management involves identification, assessment and prioritization of risks inherent in offshore energy activities. The risk management process analyzes aspects of risk in four main areas:


  • Strategic ability to support BSEE’s mission
  • Operational effectiveness and efficiency
  • Reporting reliability
  • Compliance with applicable laws and regulations

In analyzing risk in these areas, BSEE evaluates how risks are mitigated and controlled and then assess the quality of those mitigation actions so we can minimize risk to the greatest extent possible. BSEE also looks at offshore opportunities, uncertainties, threats and barriers that workers and companies face while operating on the OCS.
BSEE works with industry, scholars, scientists, lawmakers, other government agencies and partner nations to develop comprehensive plans and laws to minimize risk on the OCS.
Royalty
Payment, in value (money) or in kind, of a stated proportionate interest in production from mineral deposits by the lessees to the lessor. The royalty rate may be an established minimum, a sliding-scale, or a step-scale. A step-scale royalty rate increases by steps as the average production on the lease increases. A sliding-scale royalty rate is based on average production and applies to all production from the lease.


S
Sales value
The proceeds received for the sale of the mineral.
Service zone completion
The interval in a well bore that has been mechanically prepared for service use, usually water or gas injection to stimulate production from other wells or for water or other waste disposal.
Shut-in payments
Payments made for any producible well on the Federal OCS that is temporarily closed down. (See Shut-in zone completion.)
State Jurisdiction


  • Texas and the Gulf coast of Florida are extended 3 marine leagues (9 nautical miles) seaward from the baseline from which the breadth of the territorial sea is measured.
  • Louisiana is extended 3 imperial nautical miles (imperial nautical mile = 6080.2 feet) seaward of the baseline from which the breadth of the territorial sea is measured.
  • All other States' seaward limits are extended 3 nautical miles (approximately 3.3 statute miles) seaward of the baseline from which the breadth of the territorial sea is measured.

Sulphur
A nonmetallic element that occurs in association with salt diapirs throughout much of the onshore and offshore Gulf of Mexico region. All offshore sulphur is mined by the Frasch process, which uses hot brine to melt sulphur out of the enclosing rock so the molten sulphur can be recovered.
Suspended well
A well on which operations have been discontinued. The usual context is an uncompleted well in which operations ceased during drilling but which has not been plugged and abandoned permanently.


U
Unitization
The combining or consolidation of separately owned lease interests for joint exploration or development of a reservoir or potential hydrocarbon accumulation under the terms of a Unit Agreement. See more here.


W
Well
A hole drilled or bored into the earth, usually cased with metal pipe, for the production of gas or oil. A hole for the injection under pressure of water or gas into a subsurface rock formation.
Workover
Operation on a shut-in or producing well to restore or increase its production.

HAZARD ALERT - 1-Bromopropane that is used in degreasing, dry cleaning, spray adhesives, and aerosol solvents



HAZARD ALERT - 1-Bromopropane


1-Bromopropane
1-Bromopropane (1-BP) is a solvent that is used in degreasing, dry cleaning, spray adhesives, and aerosol solvents. Occupational exposure to 1-BP has been linked to neurological illnesses. Animal studies show that 1-BP may also cause cancer and reproductive disorders. Controls and personal protective equipment are available to protect workers from 1-BP exposure.

What is 1-Bromopropane?
1-Bromopropane, also known as n-propyl bromide (nPB), is a solvent (CAS 106-94-5) with several commercial applications. Use of 1-BP has increased in workplaces over the past 20 years. 1-BP is often found in products used in:


  • Vapor and immersion degreasing operations for cleaning metals, plastics and electronic and optical components;
  • Adhesive spray applications;
  • Dry cleaning; and
  • Solvent sprays used in operations like asphalt production, aircraft maintenance, and synthetic fiber manufacturing.


                            Dry cleaning operation (Photo: CDC/NIOSH)

Health Effects of 1-BP and How Workers Are Exposed
Exposure to 1-BP can cause irritation (for example, of the eyes, mucous membranes, upper airways and skin) and can damage the nervous system. Neurologic effects can appear as headaches, dizziness, loss of consciousness, slurred speech, confusion, difficulty walking, muscle twitching, and/or loss of feeling in arms and legs [Ichihara et al. 2012]. These effects may continue among affected persons even after exposure to 1-BP has ended [Majersik et al. 2007].

As with many other solvents, workers can be exposed to 1-BP by breathing in vapor or mists of spray. Workers might also be exposed if the chemical touches their skin because it can be absorbed [Hanley et al. 2006; Frasch et al. 2011]. Additionally, the risk of health effects to workers increases the longer they work with or near 1-BP. Impacts on health have been seen in workers after exposures for as little as two days, although symptoms are more commonly associated with longer exposure [Ichihara et al. 2012].

Federal OSHA does not currently have a specific exposure standard for 1-BP; however, employers are required by law to keep their workers safe from this recognized hazard. Degreasing, spray adhesive, aerosol solvent and dry cleaning operations expose workers to air concentrations of 1-BP greater than the limits set by the California Occupational Safety and Health Administration (Cal-OSHA) and the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH). California has adopted a 5 ppm (parts per million) time-weighted average PEL (permissible exposure limit) along with a skin notation which means that a worker's skin, eyes, and mouth should be protected from any contact with 1-BP; this limit was based on reproductive and developmental toxicity (observed in animal studies) and technological feasibility assessments from industry [CA DIR 2009]. ACGIH currently recommends a 10 ppm time-weighted average threshold limit value but has proposed lowering the value to 0.1 ppm [ACGIH 2013].

Case Study Example [Majersik et al. 2007]
Six foam cushion gluers who were exposed to 1-BP vapors from spray adhesives were seen in a medical clinic for neurotoxicity. The workers had been employed at the facility from 3 months to 3 years. All patients complained of slow onset of lower extremity pain or numbness. Five of six complained of difficulty walking, and on examination had leg spasms, loss of sensation in limbs, and muscle twitching. Three patients initially had nausea and headache. Serum bromide concentrations and air samples were obtained to assess exposure. A seven hour time-weighted average air concentration of 1-BP was found to be 108 ppm (range 92-127 ppm). Two years after exposure, the two most severely affected patients still had trouble with walking and loss of feeling in their legs and they, along with a third patient, continued to feel pain most of the time.

Studies in Experimental Animals
Animal studies suggest that 1-BP exposure is associated with reduced blood cell counts and immunosuppression along with toxicity to the liver and reproductive and nervous systems. Furthermore, the National Toxicology Program (NTP) has classified 1-BP as reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen [NTP 2014]. This designation is based primarily on increased lung, large intestine and skin cancers seen in rodents that were exposed to 1-BP in the air [NTP 2011].

Providing Training and Education
Under the Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970, employers are responsible for providing safe and healthy working conditions for their workers.
OSHA's Hazard Communication standard (29 CFR 1910.1200) requires employers to give health and safety information and training to their workers who are potentially exposed to hazardous materials, including 1-BP. Employers must make available copies of Safety Data Sheets (SDS) for 1-BP and train workers to use them. 29 CFR 1910.1200(h). The SDS will note health hazards associated with all ingredients in the product. 29 CFR 1910.1200 App. D. The SDS will name 1-BP (or nPB) as an ingredient if it is present in the product at concentrations above 1%. 29 CFR 1910.1200 App. A.1.3.3. Employers must train workers on the health hazards and how to properly use equipment designed to reduce exposures. 29 CFR 1910.1200(h)(3). Employers must give training to workers in a manner and language that the worker understands. OSHA Directive CPL 02-02-038, Inspection Procedures for the Hazard Communication Standard, effective March 20, 1998; OSHA Standard 1910.1200(h) Interpretation Letter to Dr. Richard F. Andree, April 10, 1988.

NIOSH recommends that periodic "refresher" training be offered to workers exposed to hazardous materials in the workplace. The frequency and content of this recurrent training should be determined according to the needs of individual facilities, based on factors such as reports of health effects and changes in work practices and controls.

Increasing Awareness of Healthcare Providers
Workers reporting health effects after being exposed to 1-BP should be referred to a doctor or nurse with occupational or environmental medical expertise.
Doctors, nurses and other public health professionals should be aware of the types of health effects that may occur among workers exposed to 1-BP. A thorough occupational history should always be part of the clinical evaluation of persons who have unexplained symptoms or nonspecific neurologic symptoms that could be caused by one of several medical conditions or occupational exposures. Healthcare providers caring for workers with health effects related to occupational 1-BP exposure should report findings, and their significance, to the affected worker. These healthcare providers should also summarize results on potential work-related health effects, with personal identifiers removed, to the employers.

Reducing Worker Exposure

Evaluating Exposure
Evaluation of exposures in the workplace involves identification of potential hazards followed by characterization or estimates of the level of those hazards. Worker exposures to 1-BP in the air as well as through skin contact should be measured to determine whether the hazard needs to be controlled. Biological monitoring, such as measuring of 1-BP and its metabolites in the urine of exposed workers, may also be a useful tool to evaluate worker exposures. Many of the resources listed at the end of this document have information useful in evaluating worker exposures to 1-BP [Hanley et al. 2010; NIOSH 2002b].

Examples of Sampling Results:

Although exposures may not be found to exceed air concentration levels set by California or ACGIH at every workplace using 1-BP [NIOSH, 2000], overexposures have been found on many occasions. The table below reports selected studies where exposures measured were greater than the recommended levels.

1-BP CONCENTRATIONS - FULL SHIFT MONITORING AT SELECTED WORKSITES
Operation
1-BP Concentration (Parts per million)*
Number of Samples
Notes
Degreasing
[Hanley et al. 2010]
Range 0.08 - 21
44
Workers near degreasers
Adhesive Spray Application
[NIOSH 2003]
Range 18-254
16
Foam cushion fabrication workers
Adhesive Spray Application
[Hanley et al. 2006]
Range 45-200
26
Foam cushion fabrication workers: sprayers
Adhesive Spray Application
[Hanley et al. 2006]
Range 0.6-60
34
Foam cushion fabrication workers: non-sprayers
Dry Cleaning
[Blando et al. 2010; NIOSH 2010]
40
1
Machine operator
Dry Cleaning
[Blando et al. 2010; NIOSH 2010]
17
1
Cashier

*ACGIH currently recommends a 10 parts per million (ppm) threshold limit value but has proposed lowering the value to 0.1 ppm [ACGIH 2013].

Controlling Exposure
Some types of controls are preferred over others because they are more effective. Based on the principles of general industrial hygiene practice, the following types of controls (listed in order of preference) should be considered to control workplace exposures to 1-BP:

Elimination or Substitution
Eliminating the hazard of concern or substituting the hazardous substance with a less toxic/hazardous process material are the most effective ways to reduce exposures to a potentially hazardous substance. For example, an employer may be able to substitute water-based or acetone-based adhesives for 1-BP based adhesives. Replacement chemicals may also have associated hazards that need to be considered and controlled.

Engineering Controls
Engineering controls to reduce worker exposure to an airborne contaminant, preferably at the point where the contaminant gets into the air, or otherwise isolating the contaminant away from where workers are located, are effective means for reducing exposure. A variety of engineering controls may be considered:


  • Isolation: Isolation of workplace operations is a proven method of reducing worker exposures. For example, isolating machinery using 1-BP from other work areas can reduce occupational exposure to 1-BP in workers not using the machinery. When isolating 1-BP operations is being considered, it is important to consider whether exhaust ventilation will be necessary to avoid a possible increase in exposure within the isolated work area.
  • Ventilation: For proper design and installation of ventilation systems, including local exhaust ventilation, it is important to work with persons qualified in these systems. A routine maintenance schedule should be implemented to ensure that ventilation equipment is performing effectively.
  • Other Controls: Other types of engineering controls may also be helpful, depending on the work activity. For example:
  1. Workplaces using vapor degreasing systems should consider controls such as automatically-controlled hoists, sliding or rolling covers, and ensuring the effectiveness of cooling coils.
  2. Dry cleaning operators using 1-BP should have a qualified technician manage the conversion of machines that previously used a different solvent. Machine features helpful in reducing exposure to 1-BP include safety switches, safety interlocks, filtration systems, filling devices, use of gaskets and seals resistant to 1-BP, and process controls. Processes may also need to be performed at different operating conditions such as lower temperatures.
  • Worker exposures to 1-BP should be re-evaluated periodically after engineering controls are installed to be sure that the controls remain effective.

                               Electrical parts degreasing operation (Photo: CDC/NIOSH)


Administrative Controls
Administrative controls are work practices and policies to reduce or prevent exposures to workplace hazards. The following administrative controls should be considered in workplaces using 1-BP:


  • Reduce the amount of time that a worker is exposed to 1-BP as well as reducing the number of workers exposed to the chemical.
  • Purchase, store, and use the smallest amount of 1-BP possible.
  • Keep 1-BP containers closed between uses.
  • For dry cleaning operations, avoid:
  • overheating the solvent
  • shortening drying periods

Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
PPE is used during the interim period when engineering controls are being installed or repaired, when engineering and administrative or work practice controls are not effective in adequately reducing exposure, or when controls are not feasible.


  • Respiratory protection:
  • Whenever respirators are needed to protect the health of workers or employers require respirators to be used, the employer must provide the respirators. The employer must also have a written respiratory protection program that meets the requirements of OSHA's Respiratory Protection standard (29 CFR 1910.134). This program must include a written plan, proper respirator selection and maintenance, fit testing, medical evaluations, cartridge change schedules, a program administrator, and training.
  • If respirators are necessary in atmospheres that are not immediately dangerous to life or health, the workers must use NIOSH-certified air-purifying respirators or NIOSH-approved supplied-air respirators which have the appropriate assigned protection factor. 29 CFR 1910.134(d)(1)(ii), 1910.134(d)(3)(i)(A). Respirators that meet these criteria include air-purifying respirators with organic vapor cartridges.
  • Skin protection:
  • 1-BP can be absorbed readily through human skin; therefore, chemical-protective gloves, arm sleeves, aprons, and other appropriate clothing should be worn to reduce skin exposure.
  • 1-BP easily travels through most glove materials. Recommended glove materials for protection against 1-BP are supported polyvinyl alcohol or multiple-layer laminates [Forsberg and Mansdorf 2007].

How Can OSHA and NIOSH Help?

OSHA Consultations: OSHA's On-site Consultation Program offers free and confidential advice to small and medium-sized businesses in all states across the country, with priority given to high-hazard worksites. On-site Consultation services are independent of OSHA enforcement and do not result in penalties or citations. Consultants from state agencies or universities work with employers to identify workplace hazards, provide advice on compliance with OSHA standards, and assist in establishing safety and health management systems. To locate the OSHA On-site Consultation Program nearest you, call 1-800-321-6742 (OSHA) or visit www.osha.gov/dcsp/smallbusiness/index.html.

OSHA-Approved State Plans: Twenty-seven states and U.S. territories operate their own occupational safety and health state plan approved by OSHA. State plans have Hazard Communication standards that are at least as effective as OSHA's standards in providing protection to workers. A list of state plans and more information about each state plan's Hazard Communication standard is available at www.osha.gov/dcsp/osp/index.html.

OSHA Compliance Assistance: OSHA also has compliance assistance specialists throughout the nation who can provide general information about OSHA standards, short education programs on specific hazards or OSHA rights and responsibilities, and additional compliance assistance resources. Contact your local OSHA office for more information by calling 1-800-321-OSHA (6742) or visit OSHA's webpage.

NIOSH HHE Program: Employees, employee representatives, or employers can ask NIOSH to conduct Health Hazard Evaluations (HHEs) at their workplace. NIOSH may provide assistance and information by phone or in writing, or may visit the workplace to assess employee exposure and health. Based on their findings, NIOSH will recommend ways to reduce hazards and prevent work-related illness. The evaluation is done at no cost to the employees, employee representatives, or employers. For more information about the HHE Program, visit the NIOSH HHE webpage or contact the HHE program by phone at 513-841-4382. For general information or questions about any hazard or illness, call the NIOSH Information Service: 1-800-CDC-INFO (1-800-232-4636).

Contact OSHA
For questions or to get information or advice, to report an emergency, report a fatality or catastrophe, file a confidential complaint, order publications, or to request OSHA's free on-site consultation service, contact your nearest OSHA office, visit www.osha.gov, or call OSHA at 1-800-321-OSHA (6742), TTY 1-877-889-5627.

Contact NIOSH
To receive documents or more information about occupational safety and health topics, contact NIOSH at 1-800-CDC-INFO (1-800-232-4636), TTY 1-888-232-6348, email cdcinfo@cdc.gov, or visit the NIOSH website at www.cdc.gov/niosh/.

Worker Rights
Workers have the right to:


  • Working conditions that do not pose a risk of serious harm.
  • Receive information and training (in a language and vocabulary the worker understands) about workplace hazards, methods to prevent them, and the OSHA standards that apply to their workplace.
  • Review records of work-related injuries and illnesses.
  • Get copies of test results that find and measure hazards.
  • File a complaint asking OSHA to inspect their workplace if they believe there is a serious hazard or that their employer is not following OSHA's rules. OSHA will keep all identities confidential.
  • Exercise their rights under the law without retaliation or discrimination


For more information, see OSHA's workers page.

Disclaimer
This Hazard Alert is not a standard or regulation, and it creates no new legal obligations. It contains recommendations as well as descriptions of mandatory safety and health standards [and other regulatory requirements]. The recommendations are advisory in nature, informational in content, and are intended to assist employers in providing a safe and healthful workplace. The Occupational Safety and Health Act requires employers to comply with safety and health standards and regulations promulgated by OSHA or by a state with an OSHA-approved state plan. In addition, the Act's General Duty Clause, Section 5(a)(1), requires employers to provide their employees with a workplace free from recognized hazards likely to cause death or serious physical harm. The mention of any non-governmental organization or link to its website in this Hazard Alert does not constitute an endorsement by OSHA or NIOSH of that organization or its products, services, or website.

References and Resources

Federal
CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention) [2008]. Neurologic illness associated with occupational exposure to the solvent 1-Bromopropane-New Jersey and Pennsylvania (2007-2008). MMWR 57(48):1300-1302.

NIOSH [2000]. NIOSH health hazard evaluation report: Trilithic, Inc.; Indianapolis, IN. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, HETA No. 2000-0233-2845 (PDF). Date accessed: May 29, 2013.

NIOSH [2002a]. NIOSH health hazard evaluation report: Custom Products, Inc.; Mooresville, NC. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, HETA No. 98-0153-2883 (PDF). Date accessed: May 29, 2013.

NIOSH [2002b]. NIOSH health hazard evaluation report: STN Cushion Company; Thomasville, NC. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, HETA No. 2000-0410-2891 (PDF). Date accessed: May 29, 2013.

NIOSH [2003]. NIOSH health hazard evaluation report: Marx Industries, Inc.; Sawmills, NC. Cincinnati, OH: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, NIOSH HETA Report No. 99-0260-2906 (PDF). Date accessed: May 29, 2013.

NIOSH [2004]. NIOSH Respirator Selection Logic 2004. By Bollinger, Nancy. Cincinnati, OH: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, DHHS NIOSH_Publication NO. 2005-100 (PDF). Date accessed: July 11, 2013.

NIOSH [2010]. Health hazard evaluation report: Evaluation of 1-bromopropane use in four New Jersey commercial dry cleaning facilities. By Eisenberg J., Ramsey J. Cincinnati, OH: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, HETA No. 2008-0175-3111 (PDF). Date accessed: May 29, 2013.

NTP [2011]. NTP technical report on the toxicology and carcinogenesis studies of 1-bromopropane in F344/N rats and B6C3F1 Mice. Research Triangle Park, NC: Department of Health and Human Services, National Institute of Health, NIH Publication No. 11-5906 (PDF). Date accessed: April 10, 2013.

NTP [2013]. Revised Draft Report on Carcinogens - Monograph for 1-Bromopropane; May 14 2013 (PDF). Office of the Report on Carcinogens, Division of the National Toxicology Program, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Date accessed: May 29, 2013.

NTP [2013]. Topic Page: 1-Bromopropane. Date accessed June 16, 2013.
NTP [2014]. 13th Report on Carcinogens (RoC).

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency [2007]. SNAP Regulations: Rule 12. Date accessed June 10, 2013.

States
California Department of Industrial Relations (CA DIR) [2009]. Airborne Contaminants. Date accessed May 30, 2013.

CDPH [2003]. Health Hazard Alert: 1-Bromopropane (n-Propyl Bromide) (PDF). California Department of Health Services and the California Department of Industrial Relations. Date accessed: April 10, 2013.

Safety and Health Assessment and Research for Prevention [2009]. Safety and Health Alert: 1-Bromopropane (also known as 1-BP, n-propyl Bromide, nPB) (PDF). Washington State Department of Labor and Industries. Date accessed: April 10, 2013.

Others
ACGIH [2013]. TLVs® and BEIs®: Threshold limit values for chemical substances and physical agents & biological exposure indices. American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, Cincinnati, OH.

Anderson SE, Munson AE, Butterworth LF, et al. [2010]. Whole-body inhalation exposure to 1-bromopropane suppresses the IgM response to sheep red blood cells in female B6C3F1 mice and Fisher 344/N rats. Inhalation Toxicology 22(2):125-132.

Blando JD, Schill DP, De La Cruz MP, Zhang L, Zhang J [2010]. Preliminary study of propyl bromide exposure among New Jersey dry cleaners as a result of a pending ban on perchloroethylene. J Air Waste Manag Assoc 60(9):1049-1056.

Forsberg K, Mansdorf SZ [2007]. Quick selection guide to chemical protective clothing, 5th Ed. John Wiley and Sons, Hoboken NJ. Page 116.

Frasch HF, Dotson GS, Barbero AM [2011]. In vitro human epidermal penetration of 1-bromopropane. J Toxicol Environ Health A 74(19): 1249-1260.

Hanley KW, Petersen M, Curwin BD, Sanderson WT [2006]. Urinary Bromide and Breathing Zone Concentrations of 1-Bromopropane from Workers Exposed to Flexible Foam Spray Adhesives. Ann Occup Hyg 50(6):599-607.

Hanley KW, Petersen MR, Cheever KL, Lian L [2009]. N-Acetyl-S-(n-Propyl)-L-Cysteine in Urine from Workers Exposed to 1-Bromopropane in Foam Cushion Spray Adhesives. Ann Occup Hyg 53(7):759-769.

Hanley KW, Petersen MR, Cheever KL, Luo J [2010]. Bromide and N-acetyl-S-(n-propyl)-L-cysteine in urine from workers exposed to 1-bromopropane solvents from vapor degreasing or adhesive manufacturing. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 83:571-584.

Ichihara G, Kitoh J, Li W, Ding X, Ichihara S, Takeuchi Y [2012]. Neurotoxicity of 1-bromopropane: evidence from animal experiments and human studies. J Ad Res 3(2):91-98.

Kim HY, Chung YH, Jeong JH, Lee TM, Sur GS, Kang JK [1999]. Acute and repeated inhalation toxicity of 1-bromopropane in SD rats. J Occup Health 41(2):121-128.

Li W, Shibata E, Zhou Z, et al [2010]. Dose-dependent neurologic abnormalities in workers exposed to 1-Bromopropane. J Occ Env Med 52(8):769-777.

Majersik JJ, Caravati EM, Steffens JD [2007]. Severe neurotoxicity associated with exposure to the solvent 1-bromopropane (n-propyl bromide). Clin Toxicol 45(3):270-276.

Mirzaa T, Ge' rin M, Be' gina D, Daniel D [2000]. A Study on the Substitution of Trichloroethylene as a Spot Remover in the Textile Industry. AIHAJ 61(3): 431-438.

Raymond LW, Ford MD [2007]. Severe illness in furniture makers using a new glue: 1-bromopropane toxicity confounded by arsenic. J Occup Environ Med 49:1009-1019.

DHHS (NIOSH) Publication 2013-150 OSHA - HA-3676-2013
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